Everything below concerns methionine sulfoxide. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2026-06-24. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
The mechanisms attributed to semax are inferred from animal and cell studies rather than traced to one confirmed target. The most frequently cited pathway involves increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal and cortical tissue. Some work points to engagement of melanocortin receptors, particularly MC4, which the parent ACTH fragment can activate. Effects on dopaminergic and serotonergic signalling have also been reported. No single account explains all observed results, and the relative weight of each pathway remains unsettled.
Published studies examine a fairly narrow set of endpoints. Rodent experiments commonly measure maze learning, infarct volume after induced ischemia, and tissue levels of neurotrophic factors. Clinical reports from Russian centres describe attention, memory and recovery scores in patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most of those human studies are small and few have been repeated by independent groups. Outcome measures differ between studies, which limits direct comparison.
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
The parent fragment ACTH(4-10) carries the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly. Semax replaces the arginine and tryptophan positions with a proline-glycine-proline tail, giving Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. That change removes residues associated with adrenal stimulation, so the peptide does not drive cortisol release the way full ACTH does. This distinction shapes how the compound is grouped in the literature, where it sits with neuropeptides and peptide neuromodulators rather than with corticosteroids.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized solid from research suppliers |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also dissolves in aqueous buffers; solutions are used fresh |
| Typical storage temperature | -20 °C for lyophilized powder | Short-term transport at 2-8 °C is common |
| Common analytical method | Reverse-phase HPLC | Paired with mass spectrometry for identity confirmation |
| Common synonyms | ACTH(4-10) analogue; MEHFPGP | N-terminal methionine retained in the chain |
Common degradation pathways include oxidation of the methionine side chain, hydrolysis of the peptide backbone, and aggregation under unfavourable pH or concentration. Stability studies typically monitor the main peak by chromatography and report total related substances as a percentage. Because no official monograph exists, acceptance criteria vary between laboratories, and reported purity values are not directly comparable across suppliers. Analysts therefore document the method, column, and detection wavelength alongside each result, and open questions remain about how much biological activity the oxidised forms retain.
Solid semax is typically supplied as a lyophilised powder that is hygroscopic and sensitive to moisture, light, and repeated temperature cycling. Long-term storage of the dry peptide is generally recommended at approximately -20 degrees Celsius, while shorter working periods may use refrigeration at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius. Vials should remain tightly closed and desiccated when brought to room temperature, because condensation can damage the material before it is weighed. Dividing a batch into aliquots is preferable to thawing one container repeatedly.
The compound was developed in the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow, where it emerged from research on short ACTH fragments and their effects on the central nervous system. Russian pharmaceutical listings describe it as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent, most often formulated as nasal drops. It is not a marketed medicine in the United States or the European Union, and no pharmacopoeial monograph covers it. Consequently, most published clinical experience with the substance originates from a small number of research centres, mainly in Russia and neighbouring countries.
Pharmacological accounts link semax to melanocortin signalling and to modulation of neurotrophic factor expression, particularly brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor. Much of this evidence comes from rodent studies using intranasal delivery, a route chosen because it allows peptides to reach the central nervous system with limited systemic exposure. Whether the same mechanisms operate in humans at comparable magnitude remains an open question. The precise receptor or receptors responsible for the reported behavioural and neuroprotective effects have not been conclusively identified.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
== Criticism and news media portrayal == Since 2013, the term has been adopted by feminists and the media to refer to a misogynist culture within an organization or community. In a New York Magazine article in September 2013, Ann Friedman wrote: "Bro once meant something specific: a self-absorbed young white guy in board shorts with a taste for cheap beer. But it’s become a shorthand for the sort of privileged ignorance that thrives in groups dominated by wealthy, white, straight men." Vox referred to Silicon Valley's "bro culture problem" in its review of Emily Chang's book Brotopia. In 2014 and 2017, Inc published articles on bro culture in business. In its coverage of the 2019 Telegramgate scandal, in which investigative journalists published text messages written by the governor of Puerto Rico, The New York Times referred to "an arrogant 'bro' culture of elites who joked about making chumps out of even their own supporters." The term Bernie Bro, an epithet directed at supporters of Bernie Sanders has been criticized as a reductive smear tactic used by political opponents. The term was widely used because the concept of "bro" itself was vague.
Popular sports in Malaysia include association football, badminton, field hockey, bowls, tennis, squash, martial arts, horse riding, sailing, and skate boarding. Football is the most popular sport in Malaysia. Badminton matches also attract thousands of spectators, and since 1948 Malaysia has been one of four countries to hold the Thomas Cup, the world team championship trophy of men's badminton. The Malaysian Lawn Bowls Federation was registered in 1997. Squash was brought to the country by members of the British army, with the first competition being held in 1939. The Squash Racquets Association of Malaysia was created on 25 June 1972. The men's national field hockey team ranked 10th in the world as of June 2022. The 3rd Hockey World Cup was hosted at Merdeka Stadium in Kuala Lumpur, as well as the 10th cup. The country also has its own Formula One track—the Sepang International Circuit, with the first Malaysian Grand Prix held in 1999. Traditional sports include Silat Melayu, the most common style of martial arts practised by ethnic Malays. The Federation of Malaya Olympic Council was formed in 1953 and received recognition by the IOC in 1954. It first participated in the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games. The council was renamed the Olympic Council of Malaysia in 1964, and has participated in all but one Olympic games since its inception. The largest number of athletes ever sent to the Olympics was 57 to the 1972 Munich Olympic Games. Besides the Olympic Games, Malaysia also participates in the Paralympic Games.
Hemoglobin D (HbD) is a variant of hemoglobin, a protein complex that makes up red blood cells. Based on the locations of the original identification, it has been known by several names such as hemoglobin D-Los Angeles, hemoglobin D-Punjab, D-North Carolina, D-Portugal, D-Oak Ridge, and D-Chicago. Hemoglobin D-Los Angeles was the first type identified by Harvey Itano in 1951, and was subsequently discovered that hemoglobin D-Punjab is the most abundant type that is common in the Sikhs of Punjab (of both Pakistan and India) and of Gujarat. Unlike normal adult human hemoglobin (HbA) which has glutamic acid at its 121 amino acid position, it has glutamine instead. The single amino acid substitution can cause various blood diseases, from fatal genetic anemia to mild hemolytic anemia, an abnormal destruction of red blood cells. Depending on the type of genetic inheritance, it can produce four different conditions: heterozygous (inherited in only one of the chromosome 11) HbD trait, HbD-thalassemia, HbS-D (sickle cell) disease, and, very rarely, homozygous (inherited in both chromosome 11) HbD disease. It is the fourth hemoglobin type discovered after HbA, HbC and HbS; the third hemoglobin variant identified after HbC and HbS; and the fourth most common hemoglobin variant after HbC, HbS, and HbO.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
NGF bound to the receptors on Schwann cells provides the growing neurons that are contacted with a trophic factor to promote further growth and regeneration Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) typically has a high level of expression in Schwann cells associated with nerves that are healthy, but in response to nerve injury CNTF expression decreases in Schwann cells distal to the injury site and remains relatively low unless the injured axon begins to regrow. CNTF has numerous trophic roles in motor neurons in the peripheral nervous system including the prevention of atrophy of dennervated tissue and the prevention of degeneration and death of motor neurons after nerve injury. (frostick) In sciatic motor neurons both CNTF receptor mRNA expression and CNTF receptor is increased after injury for a prolonged time frame compared to the short time frame in the central nervous system suggesting a role for CNTF in nerve regeneration. Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) have been shown to increase the rate of peripheral nervous system axon regeneration. IGF-I and IGF-II mRNA levels are significantly increased distal to the site of crush injury in rat sciatic nerves. At the site of nerve repair, locally delivered IGF-I can significantly increase the rate of axon regeneration within a nerve graft and help expedite functional recovery of a paralyzed muscle.
With the new knowledge about the role of PCSK9 and its location in the genome, they sequenced the relevant region of chromosome 1 in people with very low cholesterol and they found nonsense mutations in the gene, thus validating PCSK9 as a biological target for drug discovery. In July 2015, the FDA approved the first PCSK9 Inhibitor drugs for medical use.
Most Moluccans in northern Maluku (present-day province of North Maluku) are Muslim. Central and southern Maluku (present-day province of Maluku) have approximately equal numbers of Muslims and Christians. There is significant number of native Hindus (Tanimbar Kei people) living in the Kei Islands, which is a predominantly Catholic region. This is because, according to oral traditions, their ancestors came from Bal (Bali) during the Majapahit era. Additionally, they practice local customary law called Larvul Ngabal (transl. "red blood and spear from Bali"). The most common religion amongst Moluccans in the Netherlands is Protestantism, followed by Islam.
March 30: Law modifying the law of November 2, 1892, on labor by children, underage girls, and women in industrial establishments: the maximum daily working hours for minors under 18 and for women is reduced to 10 hours. December 1: Law allowing women with a university degree (license) to take the oath as lawyers and practice the profession. December 29: Law defining working conditions for women employed in shops, stores, and related premises. March 31, 1902: Decree creating Agricultural Chambers in Algeria: in elections to these chambers, French women who retain their civil rights (i.e., single, divorced or legally separated, or widowed) may vote (but are not eligible to be elected). 1903
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
As an example of varying pressures, a finger can be pressed against a wall without making any lasting impression; however, the same finger pushing a thumbtack can easily damage the wall. Although the force applied to the surface is the same, the thumbtack applies more pressure because the point concentrates that force into a smaller area. Pressure is transmitted to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of fluid normal to these boundaries or sections at every point. Unlike stress, pressure is defined as a scalar quantity. The negative gradient of pressure is called the force density. Another example is a knife. If the flat edge is used, force is distributed over a larger surface area resulting in less pressure, and it will not cut. Whereas using the sharp edge, which has less surface area, results in greater pressure, and so the knife cuts smoothly. This is one example of a practical application of pressure. For gases, pressure is sometimes measured not as an absolute pressure, but relative to atmospheric pressure; such measurements are called gauge pressure. An example of this is the air pressure in an automobile tire, which might be said to be "220 kPa (32 psi)", but is actually 220 kPa (32 psi) above atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 100 kPa (14.7 psi), the absolute pressure in the tire is therefore about 320 kPa (46 psi). In technical work, this is written "a gauge pressure of 220 kPa (32 psi)".
Palmitoyl Tripeptide-38 (Pal-Lys-Met(O2)-Lys, Matrixyl Synthe’6) is a tripeptide that is derived from a sequence found in the connective tissue proteins collagen VI and laminin, conjugated with a lipophilic palmitoyl chain for improved absorption into the skin. It is claimed to stimulate endogenous biosynthesis of collagens, fibronectin, hyaluronic acid and laminin, and is used in skincare products for its purported anti-aging effects.
During Biko's life, the government alleged that he hated whites, various anti-apartheid activists accused him of sexism, and African racial nationalists criticised his united front with Coloureds and Indians. Nonetheless, Biko became one of the earliest icons of the movement against apartheid, and is regarded as a political martyr and the "Father of Black Consciousness". His political legacy remains a matter of contention.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It consists mainly of animal experiments and small clinical reports, with much of the clinical material published in Russian-language journals. Large independent trials are scarce. Separating reliable effects from chance findings is consequently difficult.
A fraction of an intranasal dose is thought to reach the central nervous system, and this route is favoured partly for that reason. The proportion is not well characterized. Direct measurement in humans remains difficult with current methods.
Raised BDNF and NGF expression has been reported across several animal studies, which makes the signal fairly consistent. Whether the same change occurs in humans at usable doses is not established. It is best treated as a working hypothesis rather than a confirmed clinical mechanism.
Registered medical products are most often 0.1% nasal drops. Research suppliers ship lyophilized powder, usually in milligram quantities, which is dissolved before use. The active peptide is the same in both cases; presentation and excipients differ.