This is a working overview of heptapeptide, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2025-10-03 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its design combines the ACTH(4-7) core fragment with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension, a modification intended to improve stability and prolong activity. The molecule is hydrophilic, carries no lipid chains or glycosylation, and has a theoretical mass just over 810 daltons in its free form. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, so no non-natural building blocks appear in the backbone. A free N-terminal methionine and C-terminal proline define the unmodified parent peptide.
The compound was developed during the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow as part of research on fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Early work examined short ACTH-derived sequences that retained neurotrophic effects while lacking the endocrine activity of the full hormone. Semax entered clinical use in Russia during the 1990s, where it received registration for several neurological indications. Outside that region it remained primarily a laboratory research material rather than an approved therapeutic. English-language literature on it grew more slowly and frequently cited the original Russian studies.
Terminology around the compound varies by source. It appears in catalogues and papers as Semax, as the heptapeptide ACTH(4-7)-Pro-Gly-Pro, and under various alphanumeric laboratory codes used by individual suppliers. These names refer to the same sequence but may imply different salt forms, purity grades, or counter-ions. Peptide databases usually list the free base mass, while product descriptions sometimes report acetate or trifluoroacetate salts with a different formula weight. Because naming conventions for research peptides are not standardised across vendors, checking the declared sequence and measured mass is more reliable than relying on a trade name alone.
The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is not incidental. Proline-rich tails are known to resist several common peptidases, and the published literature attributes the longer half-life of Semax, relative to unmodified ACTH fragments, to this feature. The modification also removes the melanocyte-stimulating and corticosteroidogenic activity that characterizes longer ACTH-derived sequences. Because the molecule is small and hydrophilic, it is typically formulated as an aqueous solution for intranasal or parenteral delivery. Acetylation or amidation at the termini appears in closely related research peptides and shifts the mass by a fixed increment.
Reported pharmacological work centers on neurotrophic signaling, including changes in BDNF and NGF expression in hippocampal tissue in animal models. Human data come largely from studies conducted in Russia, and how well those results generalize to other populations remains an open question. Regulatory status differs sharply by jurisdiction: Semax is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while it holds no approved marketing status in the United States or the European Union. Outside such jurisdictions it is generally handled as a research chemical, which affects both documentation and quality expectations.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic heptapeptide | ACTH(4-7) analogue |
| Sequence | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | Free N terminus, unmodified side chains |
| Molecular weight | 813.9 Da | Free base; salt forms differ |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilised solid |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Hydrophilic; polar solvents preferred |
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
Congressman John B. Larson official U.S. House website John B. Larson for Congress Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress Financial information (federal office) at the Federal Election Commission Legislation sponsored at the Library of Congress Profile at Vote Smart Appearances on C-SPAN
Glyn Ford and Jonathan Simnett, Silver from the Sea, September/October 1982, Volume 33, Number 5, Saudi Aramco World Archived 2006-11-12 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 17 October 2005 Ballard, Robert D., 2000, The Eternal Darkness, Princeton University Press. Csotonyi, J. T.; Stackebrandt, E.; Yurkov, V. (4 July 2006). "Anaerobic Respiration on Tellurate and Other Metalloids in Bacteria from Hydrothermal Vent Fields in the Eastern Pacific Ocean". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 72 (7): 4950–4956. Bibcode:2006ApEnM..72.4950C. doi:10.1128/AEM.00223-06. PMC 1489322. PMID 16820492. Koschinsky, Andrea; Garbe-Schönberg, Dieter; Sander, Sylvia; Schmidt, Katja; Gennerich, Hans-Hermann; Strauss, Harald (2008). "Hydrothermal venting at pressure-temperature conditions above the critical point of seawater, 5°S on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge". Geology. 36 (8): 615. Bibcode:2008Geo....36..615K. doi:10.1130/G24726A.1. Catherine Brahic (4 August 2008). "Found: The hottest water on Earth". New Scientist. Retrieved 18 June 2010.
=== Professional === The National Hockey League's Carolina Hurricanes franchise moved to Raleigh in 1997 from Hartford, Connecticut (where it was known as the Hartford Whalers). The team played its first two seasons more than 60 miles away at Greensboro Coliseum while its home arena, Raleigh Entertainment and Sports Arena (later RBC Center and now Lenovo Center), was under construction. The Hurricanes are the only major league (NFL, NHL, NBA, MLB) professional sports team in North Carolina to have won a championship, winning the Stanley Cup in 2006 and 2026. The city played host to the 2011 NHL All-Star Game.
=== Early research === In 1966, for the first time, Ammann and Richard E. Stiehm documented Immunoglobulin A (IgA) as the major immunoglobulin class in breastmilk, present in high concentrations in colostrum mature breastmilk. They postulated that the protection afforded to infants by breast-feeding was a result of exposure to local antibodies contained within IgA rather than absorption of maternal antibody into these infants circulation. Ammann, Stiehm and James D. Cherry identified that there are elevated levels of Immunoglobulin M (IgM) in the cord blood of newborn infants born with the congenital rubella syndrome. This was a major step forward in understanding the fetal immune response and developing diagnostic tools to differentiate between in utero infection with infectious agents such as rubella, toxoplasmosis and cytomegalovirus from infections acquired following birth. In 1973, Ammann led his research team to perform the first successful reconstitution of T-cell immunity in a patient with severe combined immunodeficiency. This was achieved through fetal thymus transplantation. This study demonstrated that the thymus holds only the potential of developing T cells and will not result in reconstitution of B cell immunity as was subsequently shown by others who utilized bone marrow transplantation, which contained multi-potential stem cells.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
In in vitro kinetic experiments measuring OGT and OGA activity on a panel of protein substrates, kinetic parameters for OGT were shown to be variable between various proteins while kinetic parameters for OGA were relatively constant between various proteins. This result suggested that OGT is the "senior partner" in regulating O-GlcNAc and OGA primarily recognizes substrates via the presence of O-GlcNAc rather than the identity of the modified protein.
=== Preclinical === 2-Bromo-LSD (bromolysergide; BOL-148; BETR-001, TD-0148A) – non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonist and other actions ART-2612 (ART2612) – FABP5 inhibitor [25] BMB-202 – serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonist [26] Cycloserine/lurasidone (NRX-101) – combination of cycloserine (NMDA receptor partial agonist) and lurasidone (atypical antipsychotic or non-selective monoamine receptor modulator) [27] Cyproheptadine/prazosin (KT-110; Periactine/Alpress) – combination of cyproheptadine (H1 receptor antagonist, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, serotonin receptor antagonist, other actions) and prazosin (α1-adrenergic receptor antagonist) [28] GM-3009 (ibogaine analogue(s); GMX-3009) – various actions Leu-enkephalin (leucine enkephalin; Envelta; METDoloron; NES-100; NM-0127; NM-127; PES200) – δ-opioid receptor agonist [29] Metyrapone/oxazepam (EMB-001C; EMB-001) – combination of metyrapone (11β-hydroxylase inhibitor, antiglucocorticoid) and oxazepam (GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator, benzodiazepine) Midomafetamine microneedle transdermal patch (MDMA; "ecstasy") – serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agent, weak serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonist, and entactogen NB-127 – undefined mechanism of action [30] NNI-351 – DYRK kinase inhibitor, nerve growth factor (NGF) stimulant [31] Prabotulinumtoxin A (ABP-450; DWP-450; Evosyal; Jeuveau; Nabota; Nuceiva) – acetylcholine release inhibitor and neuromuscular blocking agent [32] Research programme: neurotransmitter modulators - Awakn Life Sciences (AWKN-SDN-14) – serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors [33] TN-001 – non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor partial agonist and serotonin 5-HT2B receptor antagonist and neuroplastogen
Selegiline, also known as L-deprenyl and sold under the brand names Eldepryl, Zelapar, and Emsam among others, is a medication which is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and major depressive disorder. It has also been studied and used off-label for a variety of other indications, but has not been formally approved for any other use. The medication, in the form licensed for depression, has modest effectiveness for this condition that is similar to that of other antidepressants. Selegiline is provided as a swallowed tablet or capsule or an orally disintegrating tablet (ODT) for Parkinson's disease and as a patch applied to skin for depression. Side effects of selegiline occurring more often than with placebo include insomnia, dry mouth, dizziness, anxiety, abnormal dreams, and application site reactions (with the patch form), among others. At high doses, selegiline has the potential for dangerous food and drug interactions, such as tyramine-related hypertensive crisis (the so-called "cheese reaction") and risk of serotonin syndrome. However, doses within the approved clinical range appear to have little to no risk of these interactions. In addition, the ODT and transdermal patch forms of selegiline have reduced risks of such interactions compared to the conventional oral form. Selegiline has no known misuse potential or dependence liability and is not a controlled substance except in Japan. Selegiline acts as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) and thereby increases levels of monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain.
== Description == Most cases of feline hypersomatotropism are caused by acidophilic pituitary tumours that predominantly secrete growth hormone. In some cases low levels of other pituitary hormones are secreted. Rarely a cat may have double adenomas. In a few cases the diagnosis has been pituitary acidophilic hyperplasia. In dogs nearly all cases of acromegaly are caused by endogenous or exogenous progestogens, this causes a hypersecretion of growth hormones from the mammary gland. Pituitary tumours causing excess growth hormone secretion are very rare in dogs.
A slow cooker (also known as a crock-pot after a trademark owned by Sunbeam Products, but sometimes used generically in the English-speaking world) is a countertop electrical cooking appliance used to simmer at a lower temperature than other cooking methods, such as baking, boiling, and frying. This facilitates unattended cooking for many hours of dishes that would otherwise be boiled, such as a pot roast, soups, stews and other dishes (including beverages, desserts and dips).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== See also == Thomas Graham (chemist), the founder of dialysis and father of colloid chemistry Dialysis tubing List of dialysis providers in the United States Vitamin and mineral management for dialysis Nephrology Hepatorenal syndrome
During the night of 21 February, local sources in Afghanistan reported airstrikes in parts of Nangarhar, Paktika, and Khost provinces. In Nangarhar, strikes were reported in the Bihsud and Khogyani districts, while in Paktika, strikes were reported in the Barmal and Urgun districts. Local sources reported that the airstrikes in Nangarhar's Bihsud district struck a civilian home, trapping 23 people beneath the rubble. Pakistan's Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MolB) stated that the Pakistani military conducted "intelligence-based selective targeting" of seven terrorist camps and hideouts along the Afghanistan-Pakistan border region. The Taliban claimed that the targets included civilian homes and a religious seminary. In a late-night press release, Pakistani officials confirmed that the Pakistan Air Force (PAF), under the command of Air Chief Marshal Zaheer Ahmad Babar, had carried out airstrikes in Afghanistan. Officials said the strikes were selective and intelligence-based, and targeted seven militant camps and hideouts linked to the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and the Islamic State – Khorasan Province (ISIS–K) near the Afghanistan-Pakistan border. Pakistani officials added that the strikes were conducted as retaliation for recent terror attacks in Islamabad, Bajaur, and Bannu.
=== Size and length === There is no identified correlation between the size of the glans or clitoris as a whole, and a woman's age, height, weight, use of hormonal contraception, or being postmenopausal, although women who have given birth may have significantly larger clitoral measurements. Centimetre and millimetre measurements of the clitoris show variations in size. The clitoral glans has been cited as typically varying from 2 mm to 1 cm (less than an inch) and usually being estimated at 4 to 5 mm in both the transverse and longitudinal planes. A 1992 study concluded that the total clitoral length, including glans and body, is 16.0 ± 4.3 mm (0.63 ± 0.17 in), where 16 mm (0.63 in) is the mean and 4.3 mm (0.17 in) is the standard deviation. Concerning other studies, researchers from the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital in London measured the labia and other genital structures of 50 women from the age of 18 to 50, with a mean age of 35.6., from 2003 to 2004, and the results given for the clitoral glans were 3–10 mm for the range and 5.5 [1.7] mm for the mean. Other research indicates that the clitoral body can measure 5–7 centimetres (2.0–2.8 in) in length, while the clitoral body and crura together can be 10 centimetres (3.9 in) or more in length.
== Epidemiology == Accurate epidemiological data on the prevalence of cachexia is lacking due to changing diagnostic criteria and under-identification of people with the disorder. It is estimated that cachexia from any disease is estimated to affect more than 5 million people in the United States. The prevalence of cachexia is growing and estimated at 1% of the population. The prevalence is lower in Asia but due to the larger population, represents a similar burden. Cachexia is also a significant problem in South America and Africa. In people with cancer, prevalence of cachexia was previously reported to range from 11% to 71%. Recent updates show that 33%-51.8% of people with cancer develop cachexia, though estimates vary widely and may be unreliable due to absence of consensus guidelines for diagnosis, variability in cancer populations, and variability in timing of diagnosis. Specifically, the highest rates were seen in older populations as well as those with upper gastrointestinal, colorectal, and lung cancers, respectively. The prevalence increases in advanced cancer stages, affecting up to 80% of terminal cancer cases. The most frequent diseases causing cachexia in the United States are: 1) cancer, 2) chronic heart failure, 3) chronic kidney disease, 4) COPD. Cachexia contributes to significant loss of function and healthcare utilization. Estimates suggest that cachexia accounted for 177,640 hospital stays in 2016 in the United States. Cachexia is considered the immediate cause of death of many people with cancer, estimated between 22 and 40%.
Engrafting an immunodeficient mouse with functional human cells can be achieved by intravenous injections of human cells and tissue into the mouse, and/or creating a genetically modified mouse from human genes. These models have been instrumental in studying human diseases, immune responses, and therapeutic interventions. This section highlights the various humanized mice models developed using the different methods.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide built from the ACTH(4-7) sequence plus a Pro-Gly-Pro tail. It belongs to the family of short ACTH fragments studied for nervous-system effects. Its backbone contains only standard amino acids.
It contains the 4-7 fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone extended at the C terminus. That truncation removes the region associated with steroidogenic activity. The design intent was to keep neurotrophic properties while avoiding full hormonal effects.
No natural source of the intact heptapeptide is known. It is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Some related ACTH fragments arise as hormone processing products, but the Pro-Gly-Pro extension is a designed addition rather than a natural sequence.
The sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, a seven-residue peptide. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, and Pro-Gly-Pro is added at the C-terminus. N-acetylated versions also appear in the literature and differ in mass.