ACTH(4-10) raises a handful of sensible questions. This page answers them in order, starting with the fundamentals and moving to applications.
This page was last updated on 2026-05-03 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular class | Synthetic heptapeptide | Analog of an ACTH fragment |
| Amino acid length | Seven residues | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro |
| Origin | Moscow, 1980s | Institute of Molecular Genetics |
| Approved regions | Russia and some neighboring states | Not cleared in Western markets |
| Common trade names | Multiple national brands | Sold as a nasal formulation |
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It corresponds to the ACTH(4-7) fragment extended at the C-terminus by a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide, an addition intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and the molecular mass is approximately 814 daltons. In the literature it is often described as an ACTH(4-10) analog, although that label reflects a naming convention as much as a precise structural relationship. The compound was developed in Russia and remains most closely associated with that research tradition.
Laboratory descriptions of the material are consistent across suppliers. It appears as a white to off-white lyophilized powder that dissolves readily in water and in polar organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide. Aqueous solutions are clear and colorless at low concentrations. Because the peptide contains methionine, oxidation at the sulfur atom is a recognized degradation pathway, and handling notes usually call for protected, desiccated storage. Reported purity for research-grade lots is generally above 95 percent as measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
The compound is registered in Russia as a pharmaceutical product, most commonly formulated as a nasal solution, and has been used in that setting since the 1990s. Outside that jurisdiction it is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Regulatory status therefore differs sharply between countries, and material sold internationally may not correspond to the Russian pharmaceutical formulation. Documentation with commercial samples is typically limited to a certificate of analysis covering purity and identity, not clinical status or local legal classification.
该化合物于二十世纪八十年代在俄罗斯被开发，相关工作由俄罗斯科学院分子遗传学研究所的研究团队主导。开发目标并非复制 ACTH 的完整激素活性，而是寻找保留其神经作用方向、同时去除促肾上腺皮质激素释放效应的短肽片段。研究记录显示，这一方向促成了多个相关短肽的合成与筛选，而 Semax 是其中被研究最广泛的一个。当地文献常以 Семакс 这一名称指代它。
研究兴趣主要集中在神经营养因子相关的路径上，包括脑源性神经营养因子与神经生长因子的表达变化。部分实验报告称在特定条件下观察到这些因子的水平上升，但具体信号通路和剂量依赖关系仍未完全厘清。多数公开数据来自细胞模型和动物实验，人体对照研究数量有限。因此，该化合物的作用机制在文献中属于活跃讨论，而非已经确立的定论。
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
The parent fragment ACTH(4-10) carries the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly. Semax replaces the arginine and tryptophan positions with a proline-glycine-proline tail, giving Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. That change removes residues associated with adrenal stimulation, so the peptide does not drive cortisol release the way full ACTH does. This distinction shapes how the compound is grouped in the literature, where it sits with neuropeptides and peptide neuromodulators rather than with corticosteroids.
Regulatory status varies sharply by country. Semax is registered for medical use in Russia, where it appears in formularies as a nasal solution, and it also holds registration in a small number of neighbouring states. It has no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency, and it is not a scheduled controlled substance in most jurisdictions. Elsewhere it circulates mainly as laboratory material, so purity documentation comes from suppliers rather than from a national pharmacopoeia.
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=== Covalent catalysis === Covalent catalysis involves the substrate forming a transient covalent bond with residues in the enzyme active site or with a cofactor. This adds an additional covalent intermediate to the reaction, and helps to reduce the energy of later transition states of the reaction. The covalent bond must, at a later stage in the reaction, be broken to regenerate the enzyme. This mechanism is utilised by the catalytic triad of enzymes such as proteases like chymotrypsin and trypsin, where an acyl-enzyme intermediate is formed. An alternative mechanism is schiff base formation using the free amine from a lysine residue, as seen in the enzyme aldolase during glycolysis. Some enzymes utilize non-amino acid cofactors such as pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) or thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) to form covalent intermediates with reactant molecules. Such covalent intermediates function to reduce the energy of later transition states, similar to how covalent intermediates formed with active site amino acid residues allow stabilization, but the capabilities of cofactors allow enzymes to carryout reactions that amino acid side residues alone could not. Enzymes utilizing such cofactors include the PLP-dependent enzyme aspartate transaminase and the TPP-dependent enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase. Rather than lowering the activation energy for a reaction pathway, covalent catalysis provides an alternative pathway for the reaction (via to the covalent intermediate) and so is distinct from true catalysis.
== Procedure == Before ion-exchange chromatography can be initiated, it must be equilibrated. The stationary phase must be equilibrated to certain requirements that depend on the experiment that you are working with. Once equilibrated, the charged ions in the stationary phase will be attached to its opposite charged exchangeable ions, such as Cl− or Na+. Next, a buffer should be chosen in which the desired protein can bind to. After equilibration, the column needs to be washed. The washing phase will help elute out all impurities that does not bind to the matrix while the protein of interest remains bounded. This sample buffer needs to have the same pH as the buffer used for equilibration to help bind the desired proteins. Uncharged proteins will be eluted out of the column at a similar speed of the buffer flowing through the column with no retention. Once the sample has been loaded onto to the column, and the column has been washed with the buffer to elute out all non-desired proteins, elution is carried out at specific conditions to elute the desired proteins that are bound to the matrix. Bound proteins are eluted out by utilizing a gradient of linearly increasing salt concentration. With increasing ionic strength of the buffer, the salt ions will compete with the desired proteins in order to bind to charged groups on the surface of the medium. This will cause desired proteins to be eluted out of the column. Proteins that have a low net charge will be eluted out first as the salt concentration increases causing the ionic strength to increase.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Pheochromocytoma === A pheochromocytoma is a rarely occurring tumor of the adrenal medulla, caused either by genetic factors or certain types of cancer. The consequence is a massive increase in the amount of norepinephrine and epinephrine released into the bloodstream. The most obvious symptoms are those of sympathetic hyperactivation, including particularly a rise in blood pressure that can reach fatal levels. The most effective treatment is surgical removal of the tumor.
Nanoparticle drug delivery systems are engineered technologies that use nanoparticles for the targeted delivery and controlled release of therapeutic agents. The modern form of a drug delivery system should minimize side-effects and reduce both dosage and dosage frequency. Recently, nanoparticles have aroused attention due to their potential application for effective drug delivery. Nanomaterials exhibit different chemical and physical properties or biological effects compared to larger-scale counterparts that can be beneficial for drug delivery systems. Some important advantages of nanoparticles are their high surface-area-to-volume ratio, chemical and geometric tunability, and their ability to interact with biomolecules to facilitate uptake across the cell membrane. The large surface area also has a large affinity for drugs and small molecules, like ligands or antibodies, for targeting and controlled release purposes. Nanoparticles refer to a large family of materials both organic and inorganic. Each material has uniquely tunable properties and thus can be selectively designed for specific applications. Despite the many advantages of nanoparticles, there are also many challenges, including but not exclusive to: nanotoxicity, biodistribution and accumulation, and the clearance of nanoparticles by human body. The National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering has issued the following prospects for future research in nanoparticle drug delivery systems:
Thermal ionization, also known as surface ionization or contact ionization, is a physical process whereby the atoms are desorbed from a hot surface, and in the process are ionized. Thermal ionization is used to make simple ion sources, for mass spectrometry and for generating ion beams. Thermal ionization has seen extensive use in determining atomic weights, in addition to being used in many geological/nuclear applications.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== McDonald criteria === The McDonald criteria, which focus on clinical, laboratory, and radiologic evidence of lesions at different times and in different areas, is the most commonly used method of diagnosis. The 2024 McDonald criteria states that patients with multiple sclerosis should have lesions which are disseminated in space (DIS) and, in many instances, disseminated in time (DIT), i.e. lesions which have appeared in different areas in the brain and at different times. To show DIS, lesions typically need to be present in two out of five locations: spinal cord, optic nerve and three specific locations in the brain. These lesions can be detected on MRI. The optic nerve lesions can be detected with other tests too, which might be more wide available globally than MRI. For disease that has progressed over a period of 12 months or more, two spinal cord lesions are enough. DIT can shown in repeat MRIs, among other methods. To reduce delays in diagnosis, DIS is no longer required for a diagnosis of MS. Alternatively, DIS can be combined with specific MRI findings such as the central vein sign to diagnose MS. Finally, DIS can be combined with specific tests of the cerebro-spinal fluid. As of 2025, no single test (including biopsy) can provide a definitive diagnosis.
In practice, the solid support is used in excess (often tenfold) to be sure that all expected components are formed. The above limitation is completely removed if the solid support is omitted and the synthesis is carried out in solution. In this case, there is no upper limit concerning the number of components of the library. Both the number of components and the quantity of the library can be freely decided based only on practical considerations. An important modification was introduced in the synthesis of DNA encoded combinatorial libraries by Harbury and Halpin. The solid support in their case is replaced by the encoding DNA oligomers. This makes it possible to synthesize libraries containing even trillions of components and screen them using affinity binding methods. A different way of carrying out solution-phase S&P synthesis is applying scavenger resins to remove the byproducts. Scavenger resins are polymers having functional groups that make it possible to react with and bind components of the excess of reagents then filtered them out from the reaction mixture Two examples: a resin containing primary amino groups can remove the excess of acyl chlorides from reaction mixtures while an acyl chloride resin removes amines. A fluorous technology was described by Curran The fluorous synthesis employs functionalized perfluoroalkyl (Rf) groups like 4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,9-Tridecafluorononyl {CF3(CF2)4CF2CH2CH2-} group attached to substrates or reagents. The Rf groups make it possible to remove either the product or the reagents from the reaction mixture.
These electrostatic forces can be large enough for material transfer between two surfaces. Most of these protocols have only been published recently and their respective advantages and disadvantages have not yet been tested against each other. It is therefore not yet clear how reliable these methods are and what level of preservation of the samples is required for them to work. ZooMS protocols can be valuable when working with cultural heritage objects as they support derivation of biological (and therefore location) data with minimal harm to the object.
==== Absorption ==== Propranolol is rapidly and completely absorbed, with peak plasma levels achieved about 2 hours (range 1–3 hours) after ingestion. Its oral bioavailability is approximately 25%. Despite complete absorption, propranolol has a variable bioavailability due to extensive first-pass metabolism. Hepatic impairment therefore increases its bioavailability. Therapeutic plasma concentrations are typically between 0.02 and 0.3 mg/L. Toxicity has been reported at concentrations of 1 mg/L and above, with coma or death associated with concentrations of 4 to 10 mg/L and above. Coadministration with food appears to enhance bioavailability but does not hasten its time to peak levels. Propranolol can be absorbed along the whole intestine with the main absorption site being the colon, which means people who have lost their colon due to surgery may absorb less propranolol. Propranolol shows marked interindividual variability in pharmacokinetics, with propranolol levels varying 20-fold in different individuals.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.
It is registered as a medicine in Russia and has been used clinically there for decades. No regulatory agency in Western Europe or North America has approved it for any indication.
Semax corresponds to the four-to-ten fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Because it omits the first three residues, it lacks the adrenal-stimulating action of the full hormone.
It is a short synthetic peptide built from seven amino acids: methionine, glutamic acid, histidine, phenylalanine and three prolines. The sequence derives from the 4-10 fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone with an added proline-glycine-proline tail. No plant or animal extract is involved; the material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis.