This is a working overview of ACTH(4-10), written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2025-10-29 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Verification of a supplied batch generally combines a certificate of analysis with independent testing, because certificates are self-reported documents. A typical package includes a chromatographic trace, a mass spectrum, and a stated water or counter-ion content. Batch-to-batch consistency matters more than a single purity figure when results are compared across experiments. No single mandatory standard governs research-grade peptide release, so laboratories are expected to define their own acceptance criteria. Residual trifluoroacetate from purification is a frequently overlooked counter-ion.
Lyophilized material is chemically stable for extended periods when kept dry, cold, and protected from light. The powder is hygroscopic, so vials should be warmed to room temperature before opening to reduce condensation on the contents. Once dissolved, the peptide is far less stable because peptide bonds are susceptible to hydrolysis and the methionine residue can oxidize. Solutions are typically aliquoted and held at 2-8 °C for short intervals or frozen for longer ones, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles should be avoided.
The compound is registered in Russia as a pharmaceutical product, most commonly formulated as a nasal solution, and has been used in that setting since the 1990s. Outside that jurisdiction it is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Regulatory status therefore differs sharply between countries, and material sold internationally may not correspond to the Russian pharmaceutical formulation. Documentation with commercial samples is typically limited to a certificate of analysis covering purity and identity, not clinical status or local legal classification.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It corresponds to the ACTH(4-7) fragment extended at the C-terminus by a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide, an addition intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and the molecular mass is approximately 814 daltons. In the literature it is often described as an ACTH(4-10) analog, although that label reflects a naming convention as much as a precise structural relationship. The compound was developed in Russia and remains most closely associated with that research tradition.
Laboratory descriptions of the material are consistent across suppliers. It appears as a white to off-white lyophilized powder that dissolves readily in water and in polar organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide. Aqueous solutions are clear and colorless at low concentrations. Because the peptide contains methionine, oxidation at the sulfur atom is a recognized degradation pathway, and handling notes usually call for protected, desiccated storage. Reported purity for research-grade lots is generally above 95 percent as measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Typical purity | 95% or higher | By reversed-phase HPLC area |
| Identity method | Electrospray mass spectrometry | Confirms molecular mass |
| Purity method | Reversed-phase HPLC | Detection near 214 nm |
| Primary degradation | Methionine oxidation | Sulfoxide product, +16 Da |
| Solution storage | 2-8 °C, short term | Aliquot to avoid freeze-thaw |
Circulation time for the peptide is short because peptidases cleave it readily. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail is thought to slow breakdown compared with the bare ACTH fragment, but the gain appears modest. Absorption after intranasal dosing is limited, and only a fraction of a dose is expected to reach the central nervous system. Laboratory concentrations therefore sit well above levels achieved systemically, a gap that complicates translation from bench findings to clinical claims.
The mechanisms attributed to semax are inferred from animal and cell studies rather than traced to one confirmed target. The most frequently cited pathway involves increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal and cortical tissue. Some work points to engagement of melanocortin receptors, particularly MC4, which the parent ACTH fragment can activate. Effects on dopaminergic and serotonergic signalling have also been reported. No single account explains all observed results, and the relative weight of each pathway remains unsettled.
Published studies examine a fairly narrow set of endpoints. Rodent experiments commonly measure maze learning, infarct volume after induced ischemia, and tissue levels of neurotrophic factors. Clinical reports from Russian centres describe attention, memory and recovery scores in patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most of those human studies are small and few have been repeated by independent groups. Outcome measures differ between studies, which limits direct comparison.
The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is not incidental. Proline-rich tails are known to resist several common peptidases, and the published literature attributes the longer half-life of Semax, relative to unmodified ACTH fragments, to this feature. The modification also removes the melanocyte-stimulating and corticosteroidogenic activity that characterizes longer ACTH-derived sequences. Because the molecule is small and hydrophilic, it is typically formulated as an aqueous solution for intranasal or parenteral delivery. Acetylation or amidation at the termini appears in closely related research peptides and shifts the mass by a fixed increment.
Reported pharmacological work centers on neurotrophic signaling, including changes in BDNF and NGF expression in hippocampal tissue in animal models. Human data come largely from studies conducted in Russia, and how well those results generalize to other populations remains an open question. Regulatory status differs sharply by jurisdiction: Semax is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while it holds no approved marketing status in the United States or the European Union. Outside such jurisdictions it is generally handled as a research chemical, which affects both documentation and quality expectations.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
从分子层面看，Semax 是线性七肽，没有二硫键、糖基或脂链修饰，N 端为游离氨基，C 端为游离羧基。分子含组氨酸与谷氨酸侧链，因此在水和甲醇等极性溶剂中溶解良好，在非极性溶剂中溶解有限。计算分子量约为 814 Da，与其质子化离子的质荷比吻合，可用于质谱确认。
稳定性主要由水解与氧化两条路径支配。肽键在中性或弱酸性条件下相对稳定，遇到强碱或长时间高温则明显断裂；甲硫氨酸侧链容易被氧化成亚砜，使主峰前移并拉低实际含量。金属离子、光照和反复冻融会进一步促进降解或聚集。冻干粉在低温避光条件下可存放较长时间，配制后的水溶液通常需要冷藏并尽快用完。
In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin (a historical trivial name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single. Alkanes have the general chemical formula CnH2n+2 and therefore range in complexity from the simplest case of methane (CH4), where n = 1, to arbitrarily large and complex molecules, like hexacontane (C60H122) or 4-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl) octane, an isomer of dodecane (C12H26). The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) defines alkanes as "acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having the general formula CnH2n+2, and therefore consisting entirely of hydrogen atoms and saturated carbon atoms". However, some sources use the term to denote any saturated hydrocarbon, including those that are either monocyclic (i.e. the cycloalkanes) or polycyclic, despite them having a distinct general formula (e.g. cycloalkanes are CnH2n). In an alkane, each carbon atom is sp3-hybridized with 4 sigma bonds (either C–C or C–H), and each hydrogen atom is joined to one of the carbon atoms (in a C–H bond). The longest series of linked carbon atoms in a molecule is known as its carbon skeleton or carbon backbone. The number of carbon atoms may be considered as the size of the alkane. One group of the higher alkanes are waxes, solids at standard ambient temperature and pressure (SATP), for which the number of carbon atoms in the carbon backbone is greater than about 17.
== Objective == Grameen Danone Foods aims to reduce poverty by creating business and employment opportunities for local people since raw materials including milk needed for production, will be sourced locally. The companies that make up Grameen Danone Foods Ltd. have agreed not to take out any of the profits out of the company. Instead they will invest these for creation of new opportunities for the welfare and development of people. Hence it is called 'social business enterprise'.
Hoffman alleged Edwards employed monopoly practices in breach of the Sherman Act because it had 70% share of the integrated vacuum pump frame systems market in the US and suppressed competition, imposing non-compete covenants on its suppliers and engaged in employee intimidation; customer threats, and bad faith litigation. In May 2021, Edwards was granted a partial, interim injunction against Hoffman selling a bellows component. Judgement declined to accept Edwards' application of Noerr–Pennington doctrine to dismiss Hoffman's anti competition counterclaim. In June 2022, the parties entered into a Confidential Settlement Agreement through which both parties' claims were dismissed with prejudice.
Communication satellite – an artificial satellite used as a telecommunications relay to transmit data between widely separated points on Earth. These are used because the microwaves used for telecommunications travel by line of sight and so cannot propagate around the curve of the Earth. As of 1 January 2021, there were 2,224 communications satellites in Earth orbit. Most are in geostationary orbit 22,200 miles (35,700 km) above the equator, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky, so the satellite dish antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track it. In a satellite ground station a microwave transmitter and large satellite dish antenna transmit a microwave uplink beam to the satellite. The uplink signal carries many channels of telecommunications traffic, such as long-distance telephone calls, television programs, and internet signals, using a technique called frequency-division multiplexing (FDM). On the satellite, a transponder receives the signal, translates it to a different downlink frequency to avoid interfering with the uplink signal, and retransmits it down to another ground station, which may be widely separated from the first. There the downlink signal is demodulated and the telecommunications traffic it carries is sent to its local destinations through landlines. Communication satellites typically have several dozen transponders on different frequencies, which are leased by different users.
pyrimidine Abbreviated in shorthand with the letter Y. A single-ringed heterocyclic organic compound which, along with purine, is one of two molecules from which all nitrogenous bases (including the nucleobases used in DNA and RNA) are derived. Cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) are classified as pyrimidines. The letter Y is sometimes used to indicate a generic pyrimidine; e.g. in a nucleotide sequence read, Y may be used to indicate that either pyrimidine nucleobase – C, T, or U – can be substituted at the indicated position.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
MHD can be described by a set of equations consisting of a continuity equation, an equation of motion (the Cauchy momentum equation), an equation of state, Ampère's law, Faraday's law, and Ohm's law. As with any fluid description of a kinetic system, a closure approximation must be applied to the highest moment of the particle distribution equation. This is often accomplished through approximations to the heat flux under conditions of adiabaticity or isothermality. In the adiabatic limit, that is, under the assumption of an isotropic pressure
In the equation above, xi is the concentration of template Ii; x is the total concentration of all templates; ki is the excess production rate of template Ii, which is a difference between formation fi by self-replication of the template and its degradation di, usually by hydrolysis; ki,j is the production rate of template Ii catalysed by Ij; and φ is a dilution flux; which guarantees that the total concentration is constant. Production and degradation rates are expressed in numbers of molecules per time unit at unit concentration (xi = 1). Assuming that at high concentration x the term ki can be neglected, and, moreover, in the hypercycle, a template can be replicated only by itself and the previous member of the cycle, the equation can be simplified to:
At the start of 2014, the company out-licensed its Friedreich's ataxia program, including a library of histone deacetylase inhibitor compounds, to BioMarin Pharmaceutical for US$2,000,000 and future milestone and royalty payments. Repligen has made several acquisitions through the early 2020s, including BioFlex Solutions and Tantti Laboratory Inc. among others. As of 2024, the company's President and Chief Executive Officer is Olivier Loeillot. As of 2025 it employs approximately 2,000 employees across several sites in the United States, Europe, and Asia.
=== Brain injury === There are similarities in what happens in the brain over time in Parkinson's disease and after a traumatic brain injury (TBI). PD is a progressive disorder, while TBI is an acute event that can be followed by both short- and long-term changes. Mechanisms common to both include changes in protein regulation, increased protein misfolding, protein aggregation, inflammation, and neurodegeneration. A history of TBI is reported as a risk factor for developing PD, but how mechanisms interact and whether TBI affects PD onset, development or progression are unclear.
=== Gastrointestinal === Its mechanism of action is oxygen radical scavenging, anti-oxidation, and acceleration of gastrointestinal wound healing. ZnC adheres to damaged gastric and intestinal mucosa and releases zinc and carnosine locally, helping repair and stabilize epithelial tissues. It exhibits ROS-quenching activities. It can remain in the stomach without rapid dissociation and adhere specifically to ulcerous lesions, after which L-carnosine and zinc are released to heal the ulcer. It has been shown to stimulate mucus production and to maintain the integrity of the gastric mucosal barrier. It maintains homeostasis of the gastric mucosa by prostaglandin-independent cytoprotective effects due to anti-oxidative membrane stabilizing actions, and it promotes the repair of damaged tissues by wound healing action. ZnC inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-1β and reduces oxidative stress markers in tissues.[1] It exerts cytoprotection through regulating heat shock proteins and chemokines, and by stabilizing mast cells. It does so without affecting the secretion of gastric acid. It has a potential to stimulate Hsp70 expression, with overexpression of Hsp70 being found to prevent the development of inflammatory process in the large intestinal mucosa provoked by various damaging factors. It decreases p53, p21 and Bax expression and apoptosis in the intestine after irradiation. It possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and genomic stability enhancement effects, thereby having potential in preventing gastrointestinal cancer development.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Active site === The cleft between GALE's N- and C-terminal domains constitutes the enzyme's active site. A conserved Tyr-X-X-X Lys motif is necessary for GALE catalytic activity; in humans, this motif is represented by Tyr 157-Gly-Lys-Ser-Lys 161, while E. coli GALE contains Tyr 149-Gly-Lys-Ser-Lys 153. The size and shape of GALE's active site varies across species, allowing for variable GALE substrate specificity. Additionally, the conformation of the active site within a species-specific GALE is malleable; for instance, a bulky UDP-GlcNAc 2' N-acetyl group is accommodated within the human GALE active site by the rotation of the Asn 207 carboxamide side chain.
The deSUMOylation may be arrested by the inhibitory phosphorylation of the Ulp2 SUMO protease by the Polo-like kinase Cdc5. By inhibiting the deSUMOylation of Ulp2, polySUMOylation is then promoted as the new stable state of target proteins, which are often but not always bound to other proteins in order to regulate major changes within the cell. Cdc5 is countered by the Rts1-PP2A phosphatase, which maintains the active state of the Ulp2 SUMO protease by removing the phosphate group added by Cdc5 kinase. The consequence of disrupting the counteracting deSUMOylation is the following: First, the targeted protein becomes polySUMOylated. Second, SUMO Targeted Ubiquitin Ligase, or STUbL, (SLX5 or SLX8 in the case of yeast) may then bind the polySUMOylated target and attach Ubiquitin groups (often polyUbiquitinating the already polySUMOylated protein). Third, segregases such as Cdc48 may then dissociate the SUMOylated and ubiquitinated target from its bound protein. Fourth, while the unbound protein it had been bound to is now free to do what it could not do while bound, the dissociated protein may then be degraded by the canonical Ubiquitin-Proteasome pathway. As studied with budding yeast, in the case of Tof2-Cdc14, Cdc14 release from the nucleolus allows the Mitotic Exit Network to commence, but it is regulated by the binding of Tof2, a protein subject to SUMOylation.
== Analysis == The groups of bioactive compounds present in E. planum are phenolic acids, triterpenoid saponins, flavonoids, coumarins, and essential oils. The wide range of compounds is reflected in the wide range of uses. Qualitative and quantitative determinations of the phenolic acids by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP HPLC) show relatively small amounts of rosmarinic, chlorogenic, and caffeic acids in the basal leaves and the roots of intact plants, and greater concentrations in E. planum from in vitro cultures. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the essential oil compounds performed by gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector linked to a mass spectrometer (GC-FID-MS) show the main components of stalk leaf oil, and rosette leaf oil, as monoterpenes (limonene, and α- and β-pinene), sesquiterpenes, and hydrocarbons. (Z)-Falcarinol was found as the major component of root essential oil.
Experimental studies also often exceed typical environmental exposure levels when exposing animals or cells to concentrations. This makes it difficult to determine if these same effects will happen at lower, more realistic levels of exposure. No threshold in which nanoplastics begin to significantly affect human health has been established.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Dry powder is normally held at -20 °C or lower, away from light and moisture. Sealed vials can also be kept at 2-8 °C for shorter intervals. Warming to room temperature before opening prevents condensation.
In solution, hydrolysis of peptide bonds and oxidation of the methionine residue are the principal concerns. Oxidation converts methionine to its sulfoxide form, shifting the mass by sixteen daltons. Both processes are slowed by cold storage and by avoiding alkaline conditions.
A certificate documents what the supplier measured on a specific lot, not how a laboratory will use the material. Independent verification of identity and purity is common practice. Acceptance criteria should be defined before a batch is ordered.
It is registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia, where it is typically supplied as a nasal solution. In most other countries it is not an approved drug and is traded as a research chemical instead. Approval status depends entirely on the jurisdiction involved.